Conjugated polymer-acceptor heterojunctions; diodes, photodiodes, and photovoltaic cells

ABSTRACT

This invention relates generally to the fabrication of heterojunction diodes from semiconducting (conjugated) polymers and acceptors such as, for example, fullerenes, particularly Buckminsterfullerenes, C 60 , and more particularly to the use of such heterojunction structures as photodiodes and as photovoltaic cells.

REFERENCE TO GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made in part with Government support under contractnumber N-00014-91-J-1235 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. TheGovernment has certain rights in this invention.

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/930,161,filed Aug. 17, 1992, U.S. Pat. No. 5,331,183.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates generally to the fabrication of heterojunctiondiodes from semiconducting (conjugated) polymers and acceptors such as,for example, fullerenes, particularly Buckminsterfullerenes, C₆₀, andmore particularly to the use of such heterojunction structures asphotodiodes and as photovoltaic cells.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Solid-state heterojunctions (between p-type and n-type semiconductors)have found widespread application in modern electronics. Such pnheterojunctions typically exhibit diode rectification; they aretherefore, useful in a wide variety of electronic circuit applications.The pn heterojunction is useful as a single electronic element, and itis often part of more complex electronic elements such as transistors. Aprincipal feature of the pn heterojunction is the built-in potential atthe interface between the p-type (donor) material and the n-type(acceptor) material. This built-in potential arises fundamentally fromthe different electronegativities of the two materials which make up theheterojunction. The built-in potential and the associated difference inelectronegativities is the origin of the rectifying nature of thedevice. When electrons and holes are photogenerated in the vicinity ofthe junction, the built-in potential and the associated difference inelectronegativities serve to separate the charge. The charge separationat the interface is, therefore, the origin of the photovoltaic effect.Such pn heterojunction diodes can serve as photodiodes and as thefundamental element in a photovoltaic cell, commonly known as a solarcell.

There is extensive prior art on solar cells; such devices are commonlytreated in standard texts on semiconductor devices (see for example M.S. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, Wiley-Interscience, New York,1981; Chapters 13 and 14). Currently, solar cells are typicallyfabricated from conventional semiconductors; for example, galliumarsenide, silicon, cadmium sufide etc. Since these materials requirecostly high temperature processing steps, solar cells made from suchmaterials enjoy limited use. In order to obtain optimum performance fromsuch solar cells, single crystal materials are needed. The growth andthe subsequent processing of single crystals is demanding, and thereforeeven more costly.

In photosynthesis in green plants, the process of charge separation isrelatively efficient. There has, therefore, been longstanding interestin striving for a deeper understanding of charge separation in organicsystems with the goal of achieving highly efficient charge separationfollowing photo-excitation; see for example Marye Anne Fox and MichelChanon, Eds., Photoinduced Electron Transfer, Parts A-D, (ElsevierScience Publ., Amsterdam, 1988)

For the above reasons, there has been considerable interest for manyyears in the development of suitable organic materials for use as thep-type and n-type materials in pn junctions for device application.

The utilization of semiconducting organic polymers (i.e. conjugatedpolymers) in the fabrication of pn heterojunctions expands the possibleapplications for conducting polymers into the area of active electronicdevices with the possibility of significant cost advantages overexisting technology. Controlling the energy gap of the polymer, eitherthrough the judicious choice of the conjugated backbone structure orthrough side-chain functionalization, should make it possible to matchthe absorption spectrum of the conjugated polymer to the solar spectrum.The ability to make solar cells from uniform polymer layers which haveexcellent mechanical properties (flexible films with large elongation tobreak) would enable robust large area devices that could be easilymounted for use.

Typically conjugated polymers are p-type materials in theas-synthesiszed form. Although such semiconducting polymers can be dopedn-type (by addition of electrons into the high energy π* electronicenergy levels) the resulting known n-type materials are oftenenvironmentally unstable.

There is no prior art on the use of conjugated polymers as donors incombination with fullerenes, such as Buckminsterfullerenes, as anacceptor to form donor-acceptor complexes which exhibit photoinducedcharge transfer, photoinduced spectral changes (optical memory) and/orwhich lead to separation of charge and the photovoltaic effect at theinterface between the two. There is no prior art using conjugatedpolymers as the donor layer and fullerenes, such asBuckminsterfullerenes, as the acceptor layer in a pn heterojunction thatexhibits the photovoltaic effect.

The fundamental phenomenon underlying the photovoltaic effect is theprocess of charge separation viewed from the molecular level. A basicdescription of intramolecular and/or intermolecular photoinducedelectron transfer is as follows:

SCHEME 1:

Step 1: D+A→¹,3 D*+A, (excitation on D);

Step 2^(:) 1,3 D*+A→¹,3 (D--A)*, (excitation delocalized on D-Acomplex);

Step 3^(:) 1,3 (D--A)*→¹,3 (D.sup.δ+ --A.sup.δ)*, (charge transferinitiated);

Step 4^(:) 1,3 (D.sup.δ+--A.sup.δ)*→¹,3 (D⁺• --A⁻•), (ion radical pairformed);

Step 5^(:) 1,3 (D⁺• --A⁻•)→D⁺• +A⁻•, (charge separation);

where:

donor (D) and acceptor (A) units are either covalently bound(intramolecular), or spatially close but not covalently bonded(intermolecular);

"1,3" denote singlet or triplet excited states.

At each step, the D-A system can relax back to the ground state eitherby releasing energy to the "lattice" (in the form of heat) or throughlight emission (provided the radiative transition is allowed). Permanentchanges which may occur from ion radical reactions beyond Step 5 are notconsidered here. The electron transfer (Step 4) describes the formationof an ion radical pair; this does not occur unless

    I.sub.D* -A.sub.A -U.sub.C <0,

where I_(D*) is the ionization potential of the excited state (D*) ofthe donor, A_(A) is the electron affinity of the acceptor, and U_(C) isthe Coulomb energy of the separated radicals (including polarizationeffects). Stabilization of the charge separation (Step 5) is difficult;typically the ion-radical pair recombines prior to charge separation sothat no current could be delivered to an external circuit.

Thus, the ability to fabricate pn heterojunction diodes from organicmaterials and in particular from polymers, remains seriously limited.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention is a pn heterojunction diode fabricated usingsemiconducting polymers as the donor (p-type) layer and fullerenes, suchas Buckminsterfullerenes, as the acceptor (n-type) layer.

This invention utilizes the processing advantages associated with thefabrication of said pn heterojunction diode structures from solublesemiconductor (conjugated) polymers (and/or their precursor polymers),as donors, cast from solution to enable the fabrication of large activeareas.

This invention includes compositions useful as photovoltaic cells whichare fabricated from semiconducting (conjugated) polymers as donors andBuckminsterfullerenes as acceptors and using flexible organic polymersubstrates.

A further variation of this invention includes photovoltaic cellsfabricated from semiconducting (conjugated) polymers as donors andsemiconducting polymers as acceptors, where the acceptor polymerscomprise fullerenes, such as Buckminsterfullerenes, where they areeither mixed into a carrier polymer or covalently bonded to a polymer.

This invention also provides a means for obtaining charge separation foruse in molecular information storage and optoelectronics. In thisimplementation, donor-acceptor pairs serve as bistable `molecularinformation storage units`, in which the separated ion radical pairstate is visualized as one state (denoted as `1` in a base 2representation) and the ground state is the second state (denoted as`0`).

In one aspect of the invention, we show that by using composites madefrom conjugated polymers and C₆₀, that photoexcitation of the conjugatedpolymer with light of energy greater than the π-π, gap results in theinitiation of electron transfer to the C₆₀ molecule. Photoinducedoptical absorption studies demonstrate a different excitation spectrumfor the composite compared to the separate components, consistent withphotoexcited charge transfer. A photoinduced electron spin resonancesignal exhibits signatures of both the conducting polymer cation and theC₆₀ anion. Since the photoluminescence in the conducting polymer isquenched by interaction with C₆₀, the data imply that charge transferfrom the excited state occurs on a picosecond time scale. Thisfundamental demonstration of charge separation provides the basis for pnheterojunction devices which cause charge separation subsequent tophotoexcitation. Heterojunction solar cells using this charge separationprocess have been demonstrated with devices fabricated from conjugatedpolymers and Buckminsterfullerene.

Specific advantages of this invention over the prior art include thefollowing:

(i) Because the semiconducting conjugated polymer (or its precursorpolymer) and the fullerenes are soluble, there is no need for heattreatment at elevated temperatures. This greatly simplifies thefabrication procedure and enables a continuous manufacturing process.

(ii) Since the semiconducting polymer layer and the fullerene can becast onto the substrate directly from solution at room temperature, thedevice structure may be fabricated on a flexible transparent polymersubstrate. Since such polymer films are manufactured as large areacontinuous films, the use of flexible polymer films as substrate enablesthe fabrication of large area polymer solar cells using either a batchprocess or a continuous process.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a list of conjugate 2 polymers with chemical structuressuitable for use in the present invention.

FIG. 2a is a graph of current versus bias voltage data obtained for theMEH-PPV/C₆₀ heterojunction device described in Example 5.

FIG. 2b is a graph of current versus bias voltage data obtained for theMEH-PPV/C₆₀ heterojunction device (surface area 0.1 cm²) described inExample 6. The solid line represents data obtained in the dark, whereasthe dashed line represents the data obtained when illuminated.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The discovery of conducting polymers and the ability to dope thesepolymers over the full range from insulator to metal has resulted in thecreation of a class of new materials which combine the electronic andoptical properties of semiconductors and metals with the attractivemechanical properties and processing advantages of polymers [A. J.Heeger, S. Kivelson, J. R. Schrieffer, W. P. Su, Review of ModernPhysics 60, 781 (1988)]. Moreover, the ability to control the energy gapand electronegativity through molecular design has enabled the synthesisof conducting polymers with a range of ionization potentials andelectron affinities; See T. A. Skotheim, Ed., Handbook of ConductingPolymers Vol. I,II (Marcel Dekker, New York 1986), J. L. Bredas and R.R. Chance, Eds., Conjugated Polymeric Materials: Opportunities inElectronics, Optoelectronics and Molecular Electronics (Kluwer AcademicPress, Netherlands 1990. The unique combination of electrical, optical,electrochemical, and mechanical properties of these synthetic metals andsemiconductors, plus the ability to expand the class of materials andcontrol their properties through rational chemical synthesis has madeconjugated polymers a promising field of interdisciplinary research.

By "conjugated polymers", we mean to include all π-electronsemiconducting polymers. Typical examples include, but are not limitedto, those shown in FIG. 1. Preferred is the conjugated polymer,poly(2-methoxy,5-(2'-ethyl-hexyloxy)-p-phenylene vinylene), hereafterreferred to as MEH-PPV. Any conjugated polymer or conjugated oligomercould be used in place of MEH-PPV. For example, preliminary experimentson (β-carotene)-C₆₀ composites indicate photoinduced charge transfer.For solar cell applications, the conjugated system is chosen such thatthe absorption profile (absorption vs. wavelength) matches to the solarspectrum. For photodiode applications, the conjugated system is chosensuch that the absorption profile is well matched to the wavelength to bedetected.

Note that in FIG. 1, the polymer known as polyquinoline is an exception.Whereas all the other example polymers in FIG. 1 are known to be p-type(donors), polyquinoline is an acceptor polymer [Handbook of ConductingPolymers, T. A. Skotheim, Ed., (Marcel Dekker, New York 1986)].

As a new form of carbon, Buckminsterfullerene, C₆₀, has generatedconsiderable recent interest in the scientific community; H. W. Kroto,R. J. Heath, S. C. O'Brien, R. F. Curl, R. E. Smalley, Nature 318, 165(1985); W. Kratschmer, L. D. Lamb, K. Fostiropoulos, D. R. Huffman,Nature 347, 354 (1990); H. W. Kroto, A. W. Allaf, S. P. Balm, Chem. Rev.91 1213 (1991), and references cited therein. Fullerenes, including C₆₀,are excellent electron acceptors capable of taking on as many as sixelectrons; P. M. Allemand et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 113, 1050 (1991).C₆₀, therefore, forms charge transfer salts with a variety of strongdonors. The discovery of important solid state properties in such chargetransfer salts of C₆₀ has opened exciting new directions of researchactivity; examples include the metallic state and superconductivity insalts with alkali metal ions, and soft ferromagnetism in an organic saltwith (C₆₀)³¹ .

The "fullerenes" have been expanded into a growing class of structures,including (for example) distorted "bucky balls", C₇₀, chemicallysubstituted bucky balls, bucky tubes, etc. When using fullerenes asacceptors, only the fullerene moiety is required. Buckminsterfullerene,C₆₀, is desired. Other acceptors with comparable electronegativity couldbe used in place of C₆₀. For example, preliminary experiments onMEH-PPV-polquinoline (see FIG. 1) composites have demonstrated diodeformation and photovoltaic response. Other acceptors could also be used,either in molecular form or covalently bonded to a polymer chain;possible examples include tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) and otherorganic acceptors that can take on an extra electron into the π-electronsystem to form the anion. The principal requirement is theelectronegativity of the acceptor: the electronegativity must besufficient that Steps 1 through 5 of Scheme 1 proceed as indicated.Thus, the acceptor must not be so highly electronegative that chargetransfer is stabilized in the ground state, but it must be sufficient tocause charge transfer and charge separation subsequent tophotoexcitation of the donor.

In essence, therefore, the present invention involves four steps:

1) The heterojunction desirably is built upon a substrate, for example,a piece of glass, metal, ceramic polymer or any mechanically suitablematerial. If the substrate material is not conducting, a conductingelectrode layer must be applied to serve as one contact to theheterojunction bilayer. Possible conducting layers for said contact aremetal layers, conducting layers made from mixed oxides (such asindium/tin oxide) and conducting polymer layers (such as polyaniline orconducting polyblends of polyaniline).

2) The conjugated polymer (or its precursor) is cast directly fromsolution onto the substrate. The thickness of the conjugated polymerlayer should be adjusted to enable light absorption near the interfacebetween the conjugated polymer and the fullerene, whether that interfaceis smooth (as would be the case for sequential application one after theother) or if the interface is complex (as would be the case in a phaseseparated composite where the interface might have a surface area muchgreater than the nominal surface area of the device).

3) The fullerene layer (and pure fullerene, pure Buckminsterfullerene,fullerene derivatives, Buckminsterfullerene derivatives, or polymerscomprising fullerenes, Buckminsterfullerene, or an alternative acceptorwith comparable electronegativity) serves as the acceptor layer. Again,the thickness of the fullerene (or alternative acceptor) layer isadjusted to enable light absorption near the interface between theconjugated polymer and the acceptor, whether that interface is smooth(as would be the case sequentially applied thin films) or if theinterface is complex (as would be the case in a phase separatedcomposite where the interface might have a surface area much greaterthan the nominal surface area of the device).

4) A conducting electrode layer is applied, typically serving as atransparent contact to the heterojunction bilayer. Transparentconducting layers for said contact may be conducting layers made frommixed oxides (such as indium/tin oxide) and conducting polymer layers(such as polyaniline or conducting polyblends of polyaniline). Forefficient photoinduced charge transfer, this upper contact desirably iseither transparent or covers only a fraction of the area of the devicewhich is exposed to the sunlight. Otherwise the incident light would beabsorbed in the electrode rather than near the heterojunction interface.

EXAMPLES

The following examples show methods of carrying out the invention. Theyare intended to be examples and not to limit the invention as claimedbelow in any way.

Example 1

Thin films of a (MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite were prepared for opticalstudies by spin casting or drop casting from concentrated solutions ontoquartz or sapphire substrates. The solutions were prepared by dissolvingMEH-PPV and C₆₀ (1:1 by weight) in toluene at a total typicalconcentration of 6 mg per 0.3 ml.

Absorption spectra of the (MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite were recorded. Theπ→π* absorption (peak at 2.5 eV) characteristic of MEH-PPV and the 3.7eV transition of characteristic of C₆₀ are clearly observed; thespectrum is simply a linear superposition of the two.

This example shows that since there are no additional features in theabsorption spectra, the composite can be regarded as D+A, whereD=(MEH-PPV) and A=C₆₀, indicating no significant mixing of theelectronic wave functions in the ground state.

Example 2

Thin films of the (MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite were prepared as in Example 1.The intense photoluminescence of MEH-PPV [T. W. Hagler, K. Pakbaz, K.Voss, and A. J. Heeger, Phys. Rev. B 44, 15 (1991)] is, however, almostcompletely quenched, implying a strong interaction of the two componentsin the excited state. The intensity of the emission spectrum of the(MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite is reduced by nearly three orders of magnitudein comparison with pure MEH-PPV. Independent measurements of the timedecay of the photoluminescence demonstrated a reduction in thephotoluminescent lifetime from approximately 550 ps in MEH-PPV to lessthan 60 ps (the pulse width of the excitation laser) in the(MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite. The quenching of the photoluminescence ofMEH-PPV by interaction with C₆₀ implies that in the (MEH-PPV)-C₆₀composite there exists a competitive process to the radiative emissionof MEH-PPV, consistent with charge transfer from the π* band of thephoto-excited MEH-PPV to C₆₀. An estimate of the transfer rate,1/τ_(ct), is given by decay rate of the photoluminescence in the(MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite (charge transfer will cut-off the radiativedecay). Since the photoluminescence decay in the composite is unresolvedwithin the 60 ps of the excitation pulse, we use the ratio of theintensities to estimate 1/τ_(ct) ;

    1/τ.sub.ct ˜(1/τ.sub.rad)I.sub.o /I.sub.comp

where 1/τ_(rad) is the radiative decay rate, I_(o) and I_(comp) are theintegrated photoluminescence intensities of MEH-PPV and the(MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite, respectively. The data imply, therefore, that1/τ_(ct) ˜10¹² ; electron transfer occurs on a picosecond time scale.

This example shows that charge transfer occurs and that the chargetransfer occurs on a picosecond time scale. The implication of thisresult is that the charge transfer process is faster than potentiallycompeting mechanisms; thus implying that charge separation will occurwith high efficiency. Such highly efficient charge separation isnecessary for high efficiency in solar cells and for large signalresponse in photodiodes.

Example 3

Light-induced Electron Spin Resonance (LESR) experiments used a BRUKER200D ESR spectrometer equipped with a variable temperature cryostat. Forthe LESR experiments, ESR tubes were filled with the same solutions asdescribed in Example 1, dried under vacuum, and subsequently sealed. Thesample was illuminated using an optical fiber to bring the output beamfrom an Argon ion laser (514.5 nm) into the microwave cavity. Steadystate ESR spectra were recorded with the beam on and off, and compared.

Upon irradiation at 80K, two photoinduced spin signals were resolved;one at g≈2.0000 with ΔH_(pp) =7.2 G, and the other at g≈1.9955 withΔH_(pp) =6 G. The higher g-value line is a signature of the (MEH-PPV)⁺cation [checked independently] and the lower g-value line is a signatureof the (C₆₀)⁻ anion [P. M. Allemand et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 113, 2780(1991)]. At 80K, the intensity of the ESR signal increases duringsuccessive light on-off cycles, indicating memory and metastability witha long lifetime for the charge transferred state. At 200K, however, theLESR signal has nearly vanished, demonstrating the reversibility of thephotoinduced electron transfer and ruling out permanent spins fromphotochemical reaction products.

This example provides definitive evidence of electron transfer; theg-value signatures of the(MEH-PPV)⁺ cation and the (C₆₀)⁻ anion.

Example 4

Thin films of the (MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite were prepared as in Example 1.The photoinduced changes in the absorption of the (MEH-PPV)-C₆₀composite. Photoinduced changes in the absorption (α) spectra wererecorded by mechanically chopping the pumped laser beam (2.41 eV) at 273Hz and coherently detecting the resulting changes in transmission (T)with a lock-in amplifier. The photoinduced absorption is directlycalculated from the normalized changes in transmission (-ΔT/T≈δαd, whered is the film thickness). With this method, the system response isautomatically divided out; independent measurements were carried out tocheck for any contribution from luminescence emission to thephotoinduced signal.

Photoinduced absorption (PIA) spectra were compared with those ofMEH-PPV and C₆₀. A sharp PIA edge at 1.15 eV and a plateau around1.8-2.1 eV distinguishes the composite from the pure MEH-PPV. The PIAband with peak near 1.35 eV observed in the composite is to be assignedto the excited state of MEH-PPV, either a triplet or a bipolaron (orpolaron) configuration; [K. Voss et al., Phys. Rev. B43, 5109 (1991), L.Smilowitz, A. J. Heeger, Synth. Metals48, 193 (1992)]. Since the firstabsorption of C₆₀ ⁻ anion occurs at 1.1-1.2 eV [V. I. Srdanov et al.,Chem. Phys. Lett. 192, 243 (1992)], the sharp PIA edge at 1.15 eV arisesfrom the C₆₀ ⁻ anion. The sharp turnover in the PIA spectrum of the(MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ composite at 2 eV (note that this is not due tophotoluminescence) indicates a bleaching of the π-π* interbandtransition of MEH-PPV, consistent with charge transfer; similarbleaching is observed, for example, on p-type doping. The excitationprofile of all the PIA features observed in the (MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ compositefollow the absorption profile of pure MEH-PPV, demonstrating that theinitial step in the photoinduced electron transfer from the conductingpolymer onto C₆₀ is the π-π* absorption of MEH-PPV.

This example demonstrates photoinduced spectral changes, and thereforedemonstrates the use of (MEH-PPV)-C₆₀ system as an optical memory unit:where addressed by a light beam the spectrum change--these changes canbe "read" by the changed transmission of a probe beam. The memory andmetastability of the charge transferred state (see Example 4)demonstrate that the photoinduced spectral changes can be used foroptical memory.

Example 5

Heterojunction devices (pn heterojunctions) were prepared by spinningMEH-PPV from xylene solution (1% by weight) onto ITO glass (the ITO,Indium/tin oxide, served as a transparent electrode to make contact tothe MEH-PPV (Donor, p-type) layer). Typical thicknesses wereapproximately 1000 Å. The coated substrates were then mounted in anevaporation vacuum chamber, the system was pumped to high vacuum (10⁻⁷torr), and C₆₀ was evaporated onto the surface to a thickness ofapproximately 500 Å. The final contact (to the n-type acceptor layer,C₆₀) was either gold or aluminum (separate experiments). This finalmetal contact was again evaporated onto the C₆₀ layer in a vacuumevaporation chamber.

Current (I) vs voltage (V) curves were taken with the four-layer pnheterojunction in a controlled atmosphere dry box to avoid any surfaceoxidation or photooxidation. The I vs V curve, taken in the dark, isshown as FIG. 2a. The I-V curve is characteristic of diode behavior.

This Example demonstrates that the conducting polymer/C₆₀ junction actsas a pn junction to form a diode.

Example 6

Heterojunction devices (pn heterojunctions) were prepared by spinningMEH-PPV from xylene solution (1% by weight) onto ITO glass (the ITO,Indium/tin oxide, served as a transparent electrode to make contact tothe MEH-PPV (Donor, p-type) layer). Typical thicknesses wereapproximately 1000 Å. The coated substrates were then mounted in anevaporation vacuum chamber, the system was pumped to high vacuum (10⁻⁷torr), and C₆₀ was evaporated onto the surface to a thickness ofapproximately 500 Å. The final contact (to the n-type acceptor layer,C₆₀) was either gold or aluminum (separate experiments). This finalmetal contact was again evaporated onto the C₆₀ layer in a vacuumevaporation chamber.

Current (I) vs voltage (V) curves were taken with the four-layer pnheterojunction (surface area of 0.1 cm²) in a controlled atmosphere drybox to avoid any surface oxidation or photo-oxidation. The I vs V curve,taken in the dark is shown as the solid line in FIG. 2b. The I-V curvetaken with the heterojunction illuminated with white light (withintensity of approximately 15 mW/cm²) is shown as the dashed curve inFIG. 2b. The deliverable power from this device was

    P=1/2(I.sub.sc V.sub.oc)

where I_(sc) and V_(oc) are the short circuit current and the opencircuit voltage, respectively. From the data one obtains I_(sc) ≈4×10⁻⁷A and V_(oc) ≈0.2 V, so that P≈4×10⁻⁷ Watts/cm².

Similar results were obtained in parallel using polyquinoline as theacceptor layer; both rectifying diode-like current vs voltagecharacteristics and photovoltaic response were observed with theMEH-PPV/polyquinoline heterojunction devices.

This Example demonstrates that the conducting polymer-C₆₀ junction actsas a rectifying junction to form a diode, and that the diode acts as aphotodiode; for example, increased current flows when the diode isbiased in the reversed direction. This Example also demonstrates thatthe conducting polymer-C₆₀ junction acts as a rectifying junction toform a diode, and that the diode acts as a photovoltaic cell (or solarcell) which can deliver electrical power to an external load. ThisExample also demonstrates that alternative acceptors can be used for theacceptor layer in the photodiode and photovoltaic devices.

Example 7

Heterojunction devices were prepared by spinning MEH-PPV from xylenesolution (1% by weight) onto ITO glass (the ITO, Indium/tin oxide,served as a transparent electrode to make contact to the MEH-PPV (Donor,p-type) layer). Typical thicknesses were approximately 1000 Å. Thecoated substrates were then mounted in an evaporation vacuum chamber,the system was pumped to high vacuum (10⁻⁷ torr), and C₆₀ was evaporatedonto the surface. The final contact (to the n-type acceptor layer, C₆₀)was either gold or aluminum (separate experiments). This final metalcontact was again evaporated onto the C₆₀ layer in a vacuum evaporationchamber.

The heterojunction device was put in reverse bias (1 volt) with thecircuit closed by a 100 ohm resistor. The device was illuminated withlight from the output of a monochromator, and the spectral response(current through the series resistor) was measured as a function ofwavelength. The device operated as a photodiode detector for radiationwith wavelengths throughout the visible and near IR portions of thespectrum (from 1.7 eV through 3.6 eV and above).

This example demonstrates the MEH-PPV/Buckminsterfullereneheterojunction operates as photodiode detector for wavelengths throughthe visible and near-IR portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Example 8

Heterojunction devices were prepared as in Example 7. The short circuitcurrent, I_(sc), and the open circuit voltage, V_(oc), were measured asa function of the light intensity at a fixed wavelength.

It will be apparent to one having ordinary skill in this art thatvariations and equivalents to this invention (as claimed below) will beavailable. We intend the following claims to encompass thoseequivalents.

We claim as our invention:
 1. A method for the production of electricityfrom light, comprising the steps of:contacting with light aheterojunction device havinga. a layer of an undoped conjugated polymerwhich serves as a donor, and adjacent thereto, a b. layer of an acceptormaterial comprising an acceptor selected from the group consisting ofthe group of fullerenes, substituted fullerenes, fullerene derivatives,polymers comprising fullerenes or substituted fullerenes and organic orpolymeric acceptors, said acceptor material having electronegativity inthe range to enable a photoinitiated charge separation process, andrecovering electricity from said device.
 2. The process of claim 1 wherewhere one or more of the layers of the heterojunction device has beenproduced by applying onto a substrate in fluid form, either a solutionor a melt at temperatures below 300° C.
 3. A method for the productionof electricity from light, comprising the steps of:contacting withlight, a heterojunction device havinga. an undoped conjugated polymerwhich serves as a doner, and adjacent thereto, b. an acceptor materialcomprising an acceptor selected from the group consisting of fullerenesor fullerene derivatives, polymers comprising fullerenes or fullerenederivatives, and organic or polymeric acceptors, said acceptor materialhaving electronegativity in the range to enable a photoinitiated chargeseparation process and wherein a heterojunction between the conjugatedpolymer and acceptor material has been formed in situ by controlledsegregation during solidification from a solution containing both thedonor and the acceptor moieties, andrecovering electricity from saiddevice.
 4. A method for the production of electricity from light,comprising the steps of:contacting with light, a heterojunction devicehavinga. an undoped conjugated polymer which serves as a donor, andadjacent thereto, b. an acceptor material comprising an acceptorselected from the group consisting of fullerenes or fullerenederivatives, polymers comprising fullerenes or fullerene derivatives,and organic or polymeric acceptors, said acceptor material havingelectronegativity in the range to enable a photoinitiated chargeseparation process and wherein a heterojunction between the conjugatedpolymer and acceptor material is formed in situ by mixing two immiscibleliquid constituents, one comprising the donor and the other comprisingthe acceptor and casting as a solid film, and recovering electricityfrom said junction.
 5. The method of anyone of claims 1 through 4 wherethe heterojunction device additionally comprises a contact electrode ofa transparent film of polyaniline or a transparent conducting polyblendof polyaniline with an amorphous host polymer, where each two contactingelectrodes comprising transparent films of polyaniline or transparentconducting polyblends of polyaniline with an amorphous host polymer. 6.The method of anyone claims 1 through 4 where the heterojunction deviceadditionally comprises two contacting electrodes comprising transparentfilms of polyaniline or transparent conducting polyblends of polyanilinewith an amorphous host polymer.
 7. The method of anyone of claims 1through 4 where the heterojunction device additionally comprises a solidinorganic crystalline or glassy substrate or polymer substrate precoatedwith a transparent electrode.
 8. The method of anyone of claims 1through 4 where the heterojunction device additionally comprises a solidinorganic crystalline or glassy substrate or polymer substrate precoatedwith a metal electrode.
 9. The method of anyone of claims 1 through 4where the heterojunction device additionally comprises a flexiblepolymer substrate precoated with a transparent flexible conductingpolymer electrode.
 10. The method of anyone of claims 1 through 4 wherethe heterojunction device additionally comprises a flexible polymersubstrate precoated with a flexible metal electrode.
 11. The method ofanyone of claims 1 through 4 where the heterojunction deviceadditionally comprises a first flexible polymer substrate contactprecoated with a flexible metal electrode, and a second flexibleconducting layer contact.
 12. The method of anyone of claims 1 through 4where the heterojunction device additionally comprises a flexiblepolymer substrate contact precoated with a transparent flexibleconducting polymer electrode and a second conducting polymer contact.13. The method of anyone of claims 1 through 4 where the acceptor is afullerene or a polymer comprising a fullerene.
 14. The method of anyone,of claims 1 through 4 where the acceptor is a polymer selected frompolyquinoline or a derivative of polyquinoline.